History of communications Essay

In the essay ‘History of communications’, author has tried to make us travel the whole distance right from the beginning when there was no source of communication to today’s world where we have telephone, internet etc. The artist wants us to understand how important means of communication is for us and how difficult it was to invent and implement them. Today’s age can be called as ‘Informative age’ where we can communicate in seconds through latest technology and to any part of the world. The uthor wants us to think about how the life could have been when no such facility was available for our ancestors. Also take pain to think about how they got here and who all were involved in making as well as implementing them to reach the place they are today. The innovative means of communication was different in different countries like Phoenician alphabet in China, use of pigeons in Ancient Greece and many more. Here the author wants to concentrate on the infrastructure for communication that was based on lectronic technologies in 19th and 20th century United States. Importance is given to the people who invented these technologies and developed them further for easy use. There is a relationship between social and technological aspects of society that binds people together. Many other developments like social, political, economic and cultural depend upon the development in communication system. One cannot think of development in any field unless one is able to communicate with other. Society is developed only when communication is perfect and people are able to help each other, as effort of one person cannot make any difference. According to my view the author here has concentrated much on inventions and their developments along with problems faced during implementations. The main central point of making people think about the facts is lacking behind and is dealt in the end of the essay.

Collaboration in publication a study of collaboration rates and citation rates The WritePass Journal

Collaboration in publication a study of collaboration rates and citation rates Abstract Collaboration in publication a study of collaboration rates and citation rates . Six journal articles are a small sample, so the search was manually done on Google Scholar. The journals were picked at random in order to eliminate any form of bias in the final results.   Different aspects of the articles were recorded like the number of authors, number of citations, and the year of publication. Once the data is collected, it was then used to answer the research questions. The six journal articles are listed below as follows: (Journal A). Zhong-Zhi Bai Jun-Feng Yin 2009. Modified incomplete orthogonal factorization methods using Givens rotations. Springer- Verlag (Journal B) Lili Sun , Jian Li Lijuan Wang 2012. Electromagnetic interference shielding material from electroless copper plating on birch veneer. Springer- Verlag (Journal C) Isar Nejadgholi , Seyyed Ali Seyyedsalehi   Sylvain Chartier, 2012. A Chaotic Feature Extracting BAM and Its Application in Implementing Memory Search. Springer Science+Business Media (Journal D) Panda  · S. Saha  · M. Basu , 2009. Optimal production stopping time for perishable products with ramp-type quadratic demand dependent production and setup cost. Springer Verlag (Journal E) Kanjilal  · S. Saha 2009. Electric field distribution and simulation of avalanche formation due to the passage of heavy ions in a parallel grid avalanche counter. Pranama Journal of Physics (Journal F) Md R Islam*, S Saha, N B Manik and A N Basu 2012. Transient current study in safranine-T dye based organic photo-electrochemical cell using exponentially distributed trap assisted charge transport model. Indian Journal of Physics   Ã‚   Research Findings    Table of findings JOURNAL A B C D E F YEAR OF PUBLICATION 2009 2012 2012 2009 2009 2012 NUMBER OF AUTHORS 2 3 3 3 2 4 NUMBER OF CITATIONS 4 1 1 10 0 1       Analysis Question 1 Is there a significantly different rate of collaborative work amongst different journals? Solution   Ã‚   The findings reveal that there is no significant different rate of collaborative work amongst the six different journals. Three journals have been authored by three authors each, whereas the sixth journal has four authors. The remaining two journals have two authors each. The sample reveals most of the authors preferred working in groups of three.   Ã‚  In terms of geographical locations, the authors preferred to work with researchers from the same geographical locations. Article C all the authors are from Canada, in A and B they are all from China, in D, F and E they are all from India. Question 2. Is there a significant difference in quality of research (as measured by number of citations) set against number of collaborators?    Solution   There is a significant difference in quality of research when measured by the number of citations.   One article with two authors got 4 citations and it was published in 2009, the other one published in the same year with the same number of authors got 0 citations. The other article published in 2009 has 3 authors and higher citation rate of 10. Two of the remaining articles were both published in 2012 and both have three authors and one citation each. The last article published in the same year has 4 authors and 1 citation. Going by the findings when the number of authors is the same the articles tend to have the same number of citations but when the number of authors differs, then the number of citations also differ. The citations of 2009 were higher for the article with 3 authors by a margin of 6 citations. This implies that article D was of a higher research value than article A and E. article B C both have the same number of authors and citations but lower than both A and D. The difference between the two sets of years in terms of citations is partly because the 2012 articles are very recent and as such very little or no research has been published on the same topic after they were published. However, the trend is clear in 2009 because article D got more reviews than article A and E.   This is an indication that researchers prefer using publications with more authors compared to the ones with a single or two authors (Becerra-Fernandez Leidner, 2008, p. 47).    Question 3 Has the pattern of collaboration changed over time? Solution The sample indicates that the pattern of collaboration has changed over time. In the year 2009, two journals were authored by two authors and the other one was authored by three authors. In 2012, the situation was different as two journals were authored by three authors and the other one by 4 authors. This indicates a change in the pattern of collaboration as researchers seem to like working in groups of three and above in 2012 which is slightly different to 2009 where some preferred to work in a group of two. This can be attributed to the fact that articles with more collaboration attract more citations as is evidenced by the difference in citations between article A and D. Conclusion The research findings reveal a positive relationship between collaboration in research and citation impact.   The articles with fewer authors seem to get less citation compared to the ones with more citations.   When the articles had a different number of authors in 2009, the article with more authors got more citations. In 2012, the articles had the same number of authors and citations meaning that when the number of authors is the same then the quality of research is considered as being equal. Additionally, there is an increase in the number of authors collaborating in research from the year 2009 to 2012 implying that more authors have started to appreciate the importance of collaboration in research. References Anandarajan, M., Anandarajan, A. (2010). E-Research collaboration: Theory, techniques and challenges. Heidelberg: Springer. Arden, C. H. (2010). Sustaining synergies: Collaborative research and researching collaboration. Mt Gravatt, Qld: Post Pressed. Becerra-Fernandez, I., Leidner, D. E. (2008). Knowledge management: An evolutionary view. Armonk, N.Y: M.E. Sharpe, Inc. Bessant, J. R., Venables, T. (2008). Creating wealth from knowledge: Meeting the innovation challenge. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar. Ekins, S., Hupcey, M. A., Williams, A. J. (2011). Collaborative computational technologies for biomedical research. Hoboken, N.J: John Wiley Sons. International Conference on Knowledge Management, Chu, S., Ritter, W., Al-Hawamdeh, S., World Scientific (Firm). (2010). Managing knowledge for global and collaborative innovations. Singapore: World Scientific Pub. Co. International Workshop on Groupware, Kolfschoten, G., Herrmann, T., Lukosch, S. (2010). Collaboration and technology: 16th international conference, CRIWG 2010, Maastricht, the Netherlands, September 20-23, 2010 : proceedings. Berlin: Springer. Napoli, P. M., Aslama, M. (2011). Communications research in action: Scholar-activist collaborations for a democratic public sphere. New York: Fordham University Press. Niedergassel, B. (2011). Knowledge sharing in research collaborations: Understanding the drivers and barriers. Wiesbaden: Gabler Verlag.   Ã‚  BOOK Pardede, E. (2011). Community-built databases: Research and development. Berlin: Springer. BOOK Valentine, J. C., Hedges, L. V., Cooper, H. M., Project Muse. (2009). The handbook of research synthesis and meta-analysis. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.

Raoults Law Definition in Chemistry

Raoult's Law Definition in Chemistry Raoults law is a chemical law that relates the the vapor pressure of a  solution is dependent on the mole fraction of a solute added to solution.Raoults Law is expressed by the formula:Psolution ÃŽ §solventP0solventwherePsolution is the vapor pressure of the solutionÃŽ §solvent is mole fraction of the solventP0solvent is the vapor pressure of the pure solventIf more than one solute is added to the solution, each individual solvents component is added to the total pressure. Raoults law is akin to the ideal gas law, except for solution. The ideal gas law assumes ideal behavior in which the intermolecular forces between dissimilar molecules equals forces between similar molecules. Raoults law assumes the physical properties of the components of a chemical solution are identical. Deviations From Raoult's Law If there are adhesive or cohesive forces between two liquids, there will be deviations from Raoults law. There is negative deviation when the vapor pressure is lower than expected from the law. This occurs when forces between particles are stronger than those between particles in pure liquids. This behavior is observed in a mixture of chloroform and acetone. Here, hydrogen bonds cause the deviation. Another example of negative deviation is in a solution of hydrochloric acid and water. Positive deviation occurs when the cohesion between similar molecules exceeds adhesion between unlike molecules. The result is higher than expected vapor pressure. Both components of the mixture escape solution more readily than if the components were pure. This behavior is observed in mixtures of benzene and methanol and mixtures of chloroform and ethanol. Sources Raoult, F. M. (1886). Loi gà ©nà ©rale des tensions de vapeur des dissolvants (General law of vapor pressures of solvents), Comptes rendus, 104 : 1430-1433.Rock, Peter A. (1969). Chemical Thermodynamics. MacMillan. p.261 ISBN 1891389327.

The Detrimental Effects of Illegal File Sharing Essay

The Detrimental Effects of Illegal File Sharing - Essay Example The thesis is not that clear, because it does not name all affected stakeholders. Original artists are not the only stakeholders affected. The essay mentioned other people who are also affected by piracy at the body, such as those involved in producing and distributing original music, but this is not part of the thesis. The thesis is arguable, because it can be contested. For instance, opponents of intellectual property rights can argue that file sharing can actually increase sales by expanding the distribution of music and enticing people to buy original copies. Each paragraph does not cover one idea, because it lacks topic sentences. The thesis has several points that would have been the topic sentences that could have guided the content or ideas of each paragraph. The paragraph on the motive of illegal file sharing should be removed, because it is not a detrimental impact of illegal file sharing. Each paragraph does not have a topic sentence and so its ideas are scattered, but they can still be connected to the thesis. For instance, one of the paragraphs started with: â€Å"Richard Waterman...logged the number of times Limewire users sought to download each of the files in a sample of one thousand eight hundred.†

Religion Annotated Bibliography Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Religion - Annotated Bibliography Example The site also provides the legal religious rights held by the American citizens. It also extends information on shopping sources for Witchcraft and Wicca and other related materials. The website also provides critical articles written by experts in the subject. The website of American atheists has the objective to conserve the civil rights of atheists. The website strongly promotes the separation between church and the state. It also provides important information to the public about atheism. The information pertaining to the legal, political and mythological aspects of atheism is being effectively conveyed through the website. It also serves as a media for the extension of the activities of American atheists. Withes League for Public Awareness (WLPA) which was found in atheists in Salem, Massachusetts, in May, 1986 extensively work towards creating proper awareness among the public regarding proper understanding on witchcrafts. The vision of the organization is a world free from religious persecution. The organization was founded by Rev. Laurie Cabot H.Ps. The American atheist works towards the rights of atheists. The organization was founded by Madalyn Murray O’Hair almost thirty years ago from now. It works for the active separation between the state and religion and arrange conventions and gatherings for this cause. The organization actively publishes books and disseminates information on the philosophy they preach. Its volunteers also work towards the preservation of the literatures and documents pertaining to the history of atheism. The website of WLPA critically comments on the prejudiced view of the society towards witchcraft. It also mentions the misconceptions of common public on witchcraft. The website also clearly points out the misappropriated ways by which the society approaches Witchcraft. The behavioral approach of the society to blame Wicca and Witchcraft for certain behaviors has been strongly criticized. The

DISTRIBUTIVE JUSTICE Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

DISTRIBUTIVE JUSTICE - Essay Example After pulling some strings, his family was able to arrange a liver for Krampitz. The donor heard about the need of his liver through the media campaign launched by Krampitz’s family. However, a liver transplant only bought Krampitz another eight months. Doctors had already foretold that due to the aggressive nature of cancer, the disease will not be cured even after a transplant. At the time Krampitz got a donor, there were 16000 other better suited candidates on the UNOS wait list. Krampitz was able to jump this queue of 16000, better suited candidates because of his publicity stunt. The question is, was it ethically correct for Krampitz to jump ahead of so many people only because he could? This publicity stunt may have found a donor who would not have been found otherwise but the ethical dilemma of distribution of organs is still there. This dilemma when viewed under Distributive justice can provide a better understanding and analysis of situations such as the one mentioned above. What Krampitz did is legal, technically speaking he never breached any law (Delvoye, 2004). It all boils down to the matter of ethics, how well Krampitz’s case weighs on the moral scale? Distributive justice pertains to ‘fair’ distribution of economic resources among widespread community (Maiese, 2003). This distribution revolves around three factors, number or resources, the procedure and the pattern of distribution (Maiese, 2003). Distributive justice applies to organ donation because there are simply not enough for everyone (Center for Bioethics, 2004). Going back to Krampitz’s case, the procedure, pattern as well as the number of resources (healthy livers available for transplant) all seem to be against Krampitz. What Krampitz did is a violation of ethics, knowing that he was dead anyway, regardless of the transplant. Still he jumped ahead of 1600 people and got himself a healthy liver. Critically speaking, for his own survival he had to take e very chance to save himself which is not wrong. But when you’re a citizen, you are part of the social fabric, people are knitted together to keep the society strong. Otherwise, the law of ‘survival of the fittest’ prevails and that means chaos. The matter of distributive justice in healthcare is not a matter of consequential theory. It is not about creating an equitable society; it is about what is in the best interest (mutual interest) of everybody. The idea of Distributive Justice arises in cases of organ donation because there is a wide gap between the supply and demand of human organs. Human organs for transplantation purposes are very scarce. This shortage begs a more just distribution of organs. Distributive justice aims to provide a fair distribution of scarce resources such as human organs. The distributive justice theory employs various criteria to judge and rightfully prefer one individual over another in matters of organ distribution. The theory measur es the overall utility of choosing the recipient of an organ. There is another side to this story, the supporters of Krampitz’s case. They say that the media campaign launched by Krampitz found a person who with his own will agreed to donate the liver, therefore adding another donor to the pool of donors. Had this person not reached by Krampitz’s family, he would have chosen not donate at all. This makes the case very strong for Krampitz. Krampitz identified

Experiential Knowledge versus Intellectual Knowledge Essay Example for Free

Experiential Knowledge versus Intellectual Knowledge Essay The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn has for a long time stirred the issue on the tug between experiential knowledge (the sort of knowledge that is gained in the â€Å"streets† and practiced mostly by Huck) and intellectual knowledge (the kind of knowledge being taught in schools and by people like Widow Douglas and Miss Watson). The issue can most of the time be phrased as that between being logical and following the practical consequences of one’s logic as opposed to following the dictates of society. This is a theme that was developed early on in the book and extends up to the end. Huck, for example, defies society and chooses his own logic in Chapter 1 when he told Widow Douglas that he would prefer to go to hell since this would mean a change of scenery and being with Tom. It is known for a fact that â€Å"heaven† should be the de facto choice of destination for everyone. To choose to go to hell, with our without reasons for wanting to do so, plainly means going against what is conventional. Time and again, Huck has dealt with the part of his conscience that told him that keeping and cuddling Jim, a â€Å"property† of Miss Watson versus his natural sympathy for the man (Bennett 3). These and many other instances in Huckleberry Finn illustrate the clash between the obviously wrong societal teaching that racism and slavery is good and having sympathy and compassion for the slaves as bad versus the instinctive knowledge that sympathy and compassion towards a slave is worthwhile. In this paper, this clash between experiential knowledge, i. e. , knowledge gained by oneself through the exercise of personal logical induction and deduction gathered through experience, and intellectual knowledge, i. e. , knowledge gained through different societal instruments, shall be dealt with. More specifically, this paper shall address the issue of which of these two â€Å"knowledges† has more importance. Being an issue that is of no light matter, this paper would need to look beyond Huckleberry Finn for aid. As such, Philosophy, Ethics, and Education seem to be the most promising areas of knowledge that address the issue. Hence, this paper shall look in these directions to settle the issue. Specifically, this paper shall have the following parts: on wisdom and knowledge as personal or societal; morality as inauthentic or authentic; and educations as geared towards making the person â€Å"fully† come out versus education as socialization. The paper shall end with a conclusion. Wisdom as Personal or Societal Philosophy has dealt with the question on the source of wisdom a number of times and through different thinkers. Thomas Aquinas and Aristotle are known to deal extensively about this issue, and as such, their philosophies shall be utilized. Since Aquinas is known for extensively working on Aristotle’s works, merging the works of these two thinkers shall not pose any problems. Before anything, it would be best to first give a definition of wisdom. At least in the Aristotelian-Thomistic tradition, wisdom is a kind of knowledge that is â€Å"of paramount importance in directing human existence towards its purpose or end† (Artigas 17). It is that kind of knowledge that aids man to be a better human being, not only by providing particular knowledge, but most specially a universal knowledge that speaks of the human being’s nature, purpose and end. In the end, wisdom ought to lead to the human being’s happiness, happiness defined as a life that is flourishing. All these ideas seem to be abstract, so it would be best to concretize a bit. At least for Aristotle, living a life that is full of human flourishing means living a virtuous life in a community that allows for the continuous development of the individual. According to the Aristotelian philosopher Martha Nussbaum, this refers to a life wherein virtues, human relations, reason and other physical capabilities are allowed to flourish by the society (Nussbaum 76-78). More concretely, this means experiencing real friendship, practicing justice, exercising prudence and a host of many other virtues that Aristotle spoke of in the Nicomachean Ethics in a society that value and nurture these. It is allowing a person to have meaningful relations, to engage in activities that nourish one’s â€Å"senses, imagination, and thought,† to have bodily health, to engage in play, to have autonomous control over one’s environment and so on (Nussbaum 76-78). So far, it seems that wisdom ought to be acquired for the benefit of the individual that would most probably emanate into the good of society. That is well and good, nevertheless, we still have not answered the question as to how wisdom itself is acquired. In this respect, Aquinas has an answer. Thomas Aquinas is known for the Natural Law Theory. The theory states that â€Å"man is born with the natural facility to know the basic truths or principles or the moral order as ‘the good is to be done and promoted and the evil to be avoided’† (Panizo 56). In this respect wisdom, i. e. , knowledge about what is good and what is to be avoided that ought to lead to happiness and human flourishing, is not only something that man is capable of; in fact, man is born with this natural facility. Human beings are born with the disposition to want what is good and to avoid what is evil. Thinking about it, this medieval theory seems to make a lot of sense. Is it not true that no human being ever does something which for her/him is plainly without good or any sort of benefit? Even actions that may be considered as evil by many still have some sort of perverted â€Å"goodness† in it. Actions such as murder, drug trafficking, etcetera, still give â€Å"pleasure† to those who engage in them. But, does this mean that these actions are morally good? Aquinas would not agree. He would say that though nature has granted man the capacity to know what is good and evil and to want good over evil, still, error may happen. Error occurs once the basic principle, â€Å"good is to be done and sought after, evil is to be avoided† (Aquinas 197) is applied. In fact, there is a hierarchy of difficulty when it comes to the application of this basic principle, the most difficult application of it called â€Å"remote conclusions† are described as â€Å"not easily drawn by ordinary people, for they involve education in theology and philosophy, and deep reflection† (Panizo 59). These involve judgments on issues like euthanasia, divorce, abortion, etcetera. We have reached a point then when natural wisdom, i. e. , wisdom depending on reason alone, becomes insufficient. Life is so full of instances when â€Å"remote conclusions† are needed and called for. The sad thing is, this knowledge is hard to come by and a human being is left with no option but to listen to the dialogues of the people in the academe. For Aquinas and Aristotle, experiential knowledge is not enough. It could only get us so far. This then brings us to the discussion of the place of â€Å"intellectual knowledge† in Philosophy. According to Aristotle, human beings need a role model to live a flourishing life. An excellent person is considered the standard for most of us who are still aiming for human flourishing, for a life of virtue. An excellent person is defined as he/she whose wishes â€Å"will be what is wished in reality† (Aristotle 65), i. e. , the wishes of the excellent person is that which is truly good for the human being. An excellent person is the exact opposite of the base person to whom â€Å"pleasure would seem to cause deception since it appears good when it is not† (Aristotle 65). Thus, modeling is Aristotle’s system of knowing what is worth imitating and what is not. To add to this, it must be recalled that for Aristotle (as with the other Greek thinkers), education has an indispensable role in bringing an individual to perfection. This is the very reason why the Academy and the Lyceum were established. In these schools, individuals from different cities merge to further their knowledge, to share each other’s knowledge and in this sense socializing each other. Hence, at least in Aristotle and Aquinas’ philosophy, though natural wisdom or experiential knowledge may be the starting point, this is not enough. Intellectual knowledge is still necessary since remote conclusions are always called for to ultimately be happy and live a flourishing life. Authentic and Inauthentic Morality Beyond the epistemology of Aristotle and Aquinas is the perspective that morality or ethics may be inauthentic or authentic. This is the very idea of Michael Moga in the book, Toward Authentic Morality. According to Moga, one’s sense of right and wrong can either be wholly dependent on one’s culture (i. e. , inauthentic morality) or it could come from one’s personal choice (i. e. , authentic morality). This is the very same clash between the self and the society that we have been talking about. According to Moga, most people ascribe to inauthentic morality. This is the sort of morality that gives in to social pressure, that kind of pressure that forces us to act and think in a particular way without exactly knowing why such an action or thought should be considered moral. We would not have to go very far to understand inauthentic morality. Most adolescents and teenagers are susceptible to peer pressure when it comes to many facets of their lives. The very persistence of racism and discrimination speak of a poorly reasoned morality that rest on social acceptance. In fact, Moga sets out the characteristics of inauthentic morality. The following are the characteristics of this type of morality. Inauthentic morality is characterized by being based on certain rules and values affirmed by culture; it is universal in its application, i. e. , it is valid for everyone; they impact individuals as set of morality that is external, i. e. , the source of morality is something outside the self; these laws are anonymous; the individual is haunted by fear and shame; the moral obligation is something that comes from authority; and it is fluctuating in influence (Moga 35-39). This is the sort of morality experienced by the typical teenager who follows his/her group’s choices. Such an individual follows rules not her own, a set of rules she may find difficult to follow since it is something external, nevertheless the breaking of such group rules result to fear and shame. This teenager considers the lead of the group as the one vested with authority to enforce such rules. Though this morality is most stark among teenagers, adults may very well be living this sort of morality. We would only have to look around shopping malls to see how many adults go with the flow without thinking why. Supposedly at the other extreme is authentic morality. This morality results from one’s personal decision to accept a set of values and morals after necessary reflection. Again, this sort of morality has characteristics: it is personally chosen and accepted; it is based on a rational appreciation; it is not based on fear or shame; morality as an expression of one’s freedom; and it is based on what one personally cares for, i. e. the very principles that one values (Moga 39-41). This is the sort of morality of individuals who have taken enough time to think over his/her morals. This would be represented by an individual who does an action and could very likely explain and be personally involved in the very principle of one’s actions. This would be the individual whose sense of morality is not dependent on â€Å"what others will say† but rather on a clear set of personally chosen moral principles. Though individuals must all aim for authentic morality, Moga insists that both moralities are important. In the first place, all human beings undergo the inauthentic morality stage where parents become the sole authority from whom morality emanate. Nevertheless, we should not stay this way. After being exposed to different sets of moralities, it is the individual’s responsibility to think and chose which of these moralities shall be made personal. Thus, at least in the Ethical perspective, the social and the personal ought to go together, though in the end, the social should be for the personal. Conclusion We have seen that at least in Philosophy and Ethics, there really is no real clash between the personal and the social, between intellectual knowledge and experiential knowledge. Clashes happen in Philosophy when error exists in the mind and nothing is done to correct the error. This error may of course exist not only with individuals but also in groups such as those in the academe. Nevertheless, we have clearly stated above that intellectual knowledge is there not to ram down society on the throats of individuals but rather to further perfect experiential knowledge for the sake of human flourishing. The same may be said in the field of ethics. Both authentic and inauthentic moralities are there and both have uses in society. Nevertheless, in the end, inauthentic morality ought to be the material source of inputs for the eventual authentic morality of a person. Morality only becomes stagnant when there is no interaction between the inauthentic and authentic. To answer the question which of the two knowledges is more important, we could qualifiedly say that both are important as long as there is minimal error and that the ultimate purpose is human flourishing.